Epictetus

Epictetus was born around 50 CE in Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, Turkey), into slavery. The name by which he is known, "Epictetus," is derived from the Greek word "epíktētos" meaning "gained" or "acquired"—a name that reflected his status as property rather than his birth name, which remains unknown to history.

As a young slave, Epictetus was brought to Rome, where he served Epaphroditus, a wealthy freedman who held the powerful position of secretary to Emperor Nero. This placed Epictetus in the unique position of being both at the lowest social level as a slave, yet connected to the highest circles of imperial power. Despite his bondage, this environment exposed him to the intellectual and political currents of the Roman Empire.

Early in his life as a slave, Epictetus developed a passionate interest in philosophy. With the permission of his master Epaphroditus, he was allowed to study Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus, one of the most respected Stoic teachers of the time. This education was transformative, not only intellectually but also socially, as it elevated his status within the household.

Musonius Rufus taught Epictetus that philosophy was not merely an academic exercise but a way of life—a practical discipline for achieving virtue and inner freedom. Under his guidance, Epictetus learned that while external circumstances might be beyond one's control, one's responses, judgments, and inner life remained entirely within one's power. This teaching would become the cornerstone of his own philosophical system.

At some point during his youth, Epictetus became physically disabled, likely affecting his leg and requiring him to use a crutch for the rest of his life. Ancient sources differ on the cause of this disability. Some accounts, including one by Celsus quoted by Origen, suggest that his leg was deliberately broken by his master. Other sources, such as Simplicius, indicate that he was disabled from childhood.

Regardless of the cause, this physical limitation became another aspect of Epictetus's unique perspective on human suffering and resilience. His disability served as a constant reminder of the Stoic principle that external circumstances—including physical limitations—need not determine one's inner state or capacity for virtue. He would later teach that true freedom comes not from physical liberty but from mental and spiritual independence.

Epictetus obtained his freedom sometime after Emperor Nero's death in 68 CE, likely when Epaphroditus fell from favor. As a freedman, he began teaching philosophy in Rome, quickly gaining a reputation as a powerful and compelling speaker. His teaching style was direct and practical, focusing on how philosophical principles could be applied to daily life rather than abstract theoretical discussions.

His lectures attracted students from across the Roman world, including many from the upper classes who sought practical wisdom for navigating life's challenges. Epictetus taught that philosophy should be a medicine for the soul, helping people achieve tranquility and virtue regardless of their external circumstances. His approach emphasized rigorous self-examination and the cultivation of inner discipline.

Around 93 CE, Emperor Domitian issued a decree banishing all philosophers from Rome, viewing them as potential threats to imperial authority. Epictetus, along with other philosophers, was forced to leave the city. He chose to settle in Nicopolis, a city in Epirus, Greece, where he established a philosophical school that would become one of the most influential centers of Stoic learning.

At Nicopolis, Epictetus continued teaching for the remainder of his life, attracting students from across the Mediterranean world. His school became renowned for its practical approach to philosophy and its emphasis on ethical living. Among his students was Arrian, a young man who would later become a distinguished historian and general, and who preserved Epictetus's teachings for posterity.

Epictetus's teaching method was revolutionary in its practicality and accessibility. Rather than focusing on abstract metaphysical questions, he concentrated on how philosophy could help people live better lives. He taught that the foundation of all philosophy is self-knowledge—particularly the recognition of our own ignorance and the need for continuous learning and self-improvement.

Central to his teaching was the concept of the "dichotomy of control"—the fundamental distinction between what is "up to us" and what is "not up to us." He taught that our judgments, desires, and actions are within our control, while external events, other people's actions, and even our own bodies are ultimately beyond our control. True freedom and happiness, he argued, come from focusing entirely on what is within our power while accepting what is not.

Epictetus lived a life of great simplicity at Nicopolis, owning few possessions and maintaining the ascetic lifestyle he had learned as a student of Musonius Rufus. He remained unmarried for most of his life, dedicating himself entirely to teaching and philosophical practice. However, in his old age, he adopted the child of a friend who would otherwise have been left to die, raising the child with the help of a woman whose relationship to him remains unclear.

Emperor Hadrian was known to have been friendly with Epictetus and may have visited his school in Nicopolis. Many other eminent figures of the time sought conversations with him, recognizing his wisdom and the practical value of his teachings. Epictetus died around 135 CE, having spent over forty years teaching and developing the Stoic philosophy that would influence countless future generations, including the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius.